Explanation | Units of Memory In A Computer | Learn About Computers |

Hello Everyone, Am Manjeet Singh and Today we will Discuss about Units Of Memory... So Let's Start...

Units of Memory:-

The memory unit is the principal storage of the computer. All the data and instructions that the 
computer needs at a moment are stored here. All storage devices are characterized with the following features:

1. Speed
2. Volatility
3. Access method
4. Portability
5. Cost and capacity

Linking Memory with the other units:

Basic Units of Measurement:

The components of the computer can recognize only two states that is presence or absence of an electrical signal. Two symbols used to represent these two states are 0 and 1, and are known as BITS (an abbreviation for BInary DigiTS). 0 represents the absence of a signal, 1 represents the presence of a signal. A BIT is, therefore, the smallest unit of data in a computer and can either store a 0 or 1.

Since a single bit can store only one of the two values, there can possibly be only four unique combinations:
00 01 10 11
Bits are, therefore, combined together into larger units in order to hold greater range of values. BYTES are typically a sequence of eight bits put together to create a single computer alphabetical or numerical character. More often referred to in larger multiples, bytes may appear as 

Kilobytes (1,024 bytes), 
Megabytes (1,048,576 bytes), 
GigaBytes (1,073,741,824), 
TeraBytes (approx. 1,099,511,000,000 bytes), or PetaBytes (approx. 1,125,899,900,000,000 bytes).

Bytes are used to quantify the amount of data digitally stored (on disks, tapes) or transmitted 
(over the internet), and are also used to measure the memory and document size.

Types of memory:-

Computers use several different types of memory. They are:

1. Main Memory/Primary Memory units:

– Two most important are

• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• ROM (Read-only Memory)

– They work in different ways and perform distinct         functions
– CPU Registers
– Cache Memory

2. Secondary Memory/Auxiliary Memory:

Also termed as ‘auxiliary’ or ‘backup’ storage, it is typically used as a supplement to main storage. It is much cheaper than the main storage and stores large amount of data and instructions permanently. Hardware devices like magnetic tapes, Floppy Disk, 
Hard Disk, Optical disks, Compact Disk (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) and Blu-ray Disc (BD) fall under this category.

Computer’s memory can be classified into two types – RAM and ROM.

RAM or Random Access Memory:

It is the central storage unit in a computer system. It is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. The more RAM a computer has, the more data a computer can manipulate.

Random access memory, also called the Read/Write memory, is the temporary memory of a computer. It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of RAM are cleared once the computer is turned off.

ROM or Read Only Memory: 

It is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains manufacturer’s instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the computer software operating, once the power is turned on.

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Introduction to Computers | Anatomy of Computers | Input and Output Devices | Learn About Computers |

Hello Everyone, Am Manjeet Singh and Today we will Discuss about Introduction to Computers, Anatomy of Computers, Input and Output Devices... So Let's Start...

In human affairs we have reached a point where the problems that we must solve are no longer solvable without the aid of computers. I fear not computers but the lack of them. ISAAC ASIMOV

Introduction to Computers:

A computer can be defined as an electronic device capable of processing the data and producing the information.

The computer system essentially comprises three important parts –

1. input device,
2. central processing unit (CPU) and
3. output device.

The CPU itself is made of three components namely,

1. arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
2. memory unit, and
3. control unit.

Components of a computer system:

Central Processing Unit:

On broad basis, a computer performs the following tasks:

Input: 
Sending the data and command to the computer is known as input.

Processing:
Work done by the computer with the help of processing hardware and software to produce results is known as processing.

Output: 
The result displayed by the computer is known as output.

Storage:
A place to save result inside or outside the computer is known as storage.

Anatomy of Computers:
The following are the parts of a desktop computer.

Power Supply:

When you plug your power cable into your computer,
you are actually plugging into a socket in the power
supply unit that has been fitted inside your case. This
component is responsible for converting the 240 volt AC mains power to low voltage DC power needed by
computer components. The power supply generates
+3.3V, +5V, +12V, -5V. These voltages must be constant, right up to the maximum current your system
will draw under load.

Monitor:

Commonly known as a "screen," the monitor gives you a visual display of what your computer is up to. Monitor displays are divided into pixels. The higher the pixel count, the higher the "resolution." Resolutions are measured in Rows x Columns. Common resolution settings are 640 x 480, 800 x 600, 1024 x 768, 1280 x 1024, etc.

Mother board:

The mainboard I which is sometimes called a motherboard. This is usually the largest circuit-board in the computer, and every other component in the computer connects to it.

Central Processing Unit:

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)is usually called either a CPU or just a Processor. The CPU is the brain of the system. It executes all the program code from the operating system and the applications the user runs and processing of data. It sends CPU commands to direct the actions of all the other components in the computer.

Main Memory or Random Access Memory (RAM):

RAM, which stands for Random Access Memory, is the short term memory that the computer uses to keep track of what it's doing. If the computer loses power, anything stored in RAM is lost.

Storage Device:

Computer storage device is any type of hardware that
stores data. The most common type of storage device,
which nearly all computers have, is a hard drive.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES:

Input Devices:
Input device is a hardware device that sends information to the computer.

Mouse:

Mouse is a pointer device.The mouse allows an individual to control a pointer in a graphical user
interface (GUI). Utilizing a mouse a user has the ability to perform various functions such as opening a program or file and does not require the user to memorize commands.

Digital camera:

A type of camera that stores the pictures or video it takes in electronic format instead of to film.

Web Cam:

A camera connected to a computer that allows anyone connected to the Internet to view still pictures or motion video of a user.

Joystick:

A computer joystick allows an individual to easily navigate an object in a game such as navigating
a plane in a flight simulator.

Keyboard:

One of the main input devices used on a computer, a computer keyboard looks very similar to the
keyboards of electric typewriters, with some additional keys.

Microphone:

Sometimes abbreviated as mic, a microphone is a hardware peripheral that allows computer users to input audio into their computers.

Scanner:

Input device that allows a user to take an image and/or text and convert it into a digital file, allowing
the computer to read and/or display the scanned object.

Output Device:
Any peripheral that receives and/or displays output from a computer. Below are some examples of different types of output devices commonly found on a computer.

Monitor:

A monitor is a video display screen. Monitor is also called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) or Video Display Terminal (VDT).

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors:

They are built very similarly to older (tube) television sets. They are heavy, bulky, take up a lot of desk space, and emit radiation.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors:

They are thin and flat. They are light, compact, take up very little desk space emit no known radiation.

Printer:

A printer is an output device responsible for
taking computer data and generating a hard
copy of that data.

Projector:

Speakers:

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Optical Activity | Physical Properties And Molecular Structure | Explained | Learn About Chemistry |

Hello Everyone, Am Manjeet Singh and Today we will Discuss about Optical Activity And Its Physical Properties And Molecular Structure... So Let's Start...

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
 
The physical properties like density, optical activity, dipole moment, refractive index, magnetic susceptibility etc. can be determined quantitatively and play an important role in providing information about the molecular structure. 
The basic fact that these physical properties are additive, constitutive or both in nature helps us to determine the molecular structure.

(1) Additive property: The physical property the total value of which is equal to the sum of values of corresponding properties of the constituent atoms is called an additive property.
For example molecular mass of a compound.

(2) Constitutive property: The physical property which depends upon the constitution of the molecule i.e. the arrangement of atoms and bond structure in a molecule is called constitutive property.
For example optical activity, surface tension, viscosity.

(3) Additive and Constitutive property: If is defined as an additive property that also depends upon the arrangement and bond structure of atoms in a molecule.
For example surface tension, viscosity, magnetic susceptibility etc.

OPTICAL ACTIVITY

Some common terms: 

(1) Plane polarised light: A beam of ordinary light consists of electromagnetic waves vibrating in all planes perpendicular to its direction of propagation. When ordinary light is passed through a Nicol prism (a special type of prism made up of crystalline calcium carbonate) its vibrations in all directions except the direction of axis of the prism, are cut off. The emergent rays  come out with their vibrations only in one plane. A beam of light having vibrations only in one plane is said to be plane polarised light.

(2) Optical activity: If plane polarised light is passed thorough quartz or solutions of some substances like sugar, camphor, etc. the path of plane polarised light gets rotated. The substances which rotate the plane of polarised light are called optically active substances and the property of a substance to rotate the plane of polarised light is called optical activity. All optically active substances do not rotate there Plane of polarised light in the same direction. Some rotate the plane of polarised light to the right and are called dextro rotatory written as d or ( + ) as prefix to the name of the compound. On the other hand, the substances which rotate the  plane of polarised light towards left after called leavo rotatory written as l or( - ) as prefix to the name of the compound.

# The principle behind rotation of plane polarised light:

 
if two nicol prisms are placed with their polarisation planes parallel to each other, the planes polarised light emerging from first prism passes through the second and bright field is seen through the eye piece but if the second prism is turned through 90° so that the planes of polarisation of two prisms are at right angles, then the light rays coming out of the first prism are stopped by the second and a dark field is seen through the eye piece.

The first prism is called POLARISER and the second prism is called ANALYSER. If an optically active substance is placed between the polariser and analyser kept at dark field position some light starts coming through the analyser and the optical view appears some what bright. In order to get a complete dark view again, the analyser had to be rotated through an angle (alpha). From this observation it is clear that optically active substances has the power of rotating the plane of polarised light through a certain angle and hence it is said to be optically active.

To obtain dark view when the analyser is turned towards right( i.e. clockwise) the optically active substances is said to be dextro rotatory and when analyser is turned to left ( anticlockwise) the substances is called leavo rotatory.

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BLACK BODY AND BLACK BODY RADIATION | Explained | Learn About Chemistry |

BLACK BODY AND BLACK BODY RADIATION

Hello Everyone, Am Manjeet Singh and Today we will Discuss about Black Body And Black Body Radiation... So Let's Start...

To understand the concept of black body we consider

following two situation.

(1) Absorption of radiation by a body.
(2) Emission of radiation by a body.

When a radiation falls on the surface of a body, a part of it is reflected, some port of it is absorbed and the rest is transmitted. Whole of radiant energy is not absorbed because generally the surface of the objects are not perfect Absorbers of radiation. However if the radiation falls on a blackened metallic surface, it is almost completely absorbed. So, a body which completely absorbs all the radiations falling on it is called a black body.
Now we take the case of emission of radiation by the object. Radiation is emitted by any solid body at any temperature as a result of vibrations of its particles. At low temperature the emitted radiations are of low frequency. As the temperature is raised the emitted radiation goes from a lower frequency to the higher frequency. Different solids emit radiation at different rates at same temperature, the emission rate is maximum when the solid is perfect black. In other words, when a body is heated, it radiates maximum amount of radiant energy. So a black body is a perfect emitter of radiant energy. At a given temperature, a black body radiates maximum amount of radiant energy. Thus a black body is defined as an object that  completely absorbs all the radiations falling on it, it is also a perfect emitter of radiation.
The radiation emerging from a black body is called " black body radiation". 

Experimentally, a nearest approach to black body is a hollow sphere blackened from inside and having a small hole for the entry of radiations. The inner surface of the sphere is blackened with lamp black. This blackened surface helps in complete absorption of radiations falling on it. The black body designed by Fery is shown in figure. It consists of a hollow double walled metallic sphere having a hole. The inner surface has a projection to prevent the direct reflection of the radiations entering from the hole. The inside surface is blackened with lamp black. Its exterior is completely insulated from surroundings so as to avoid the loss of radiation in the form of heat. Any radiation that enters black body through a small hole is reflected repeatedly from the walls and reabsorbed inside the sphere untill all of the energy is absorbed.

When a black body is heated, it glows from inside and cannot lose any energy to the outside world. It soon attains a state of thermal equilibrium and no external heat energy is required to maintain a constant temperature. But the inner walls are radiating all types of wavelength. The radiation emitted by a black body at a particular temperature are called Black Body Radiation. The origin of these black body radiations lies in the vibrations of particles of the body ( the oscillators) that emit the radiation energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

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What is Dipole Moment And Dipole Field?? Explained

Hello Everyone, Am Manjeet Singh and Today we will Discuss about Dipole Moment And Dipole Field... So Let's Start...

Dipole Moment: Dipole Moment (p) is a measure of the strength of electric dipole. It is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to protect of the magnitude of either charge and the distance between them.

i.e.      p=q(2a)     or      |p|=q(2a)

By convention, the direction of p is from negative to positive charge.
Then SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb-metre (C-m)
If charge q gets larger, and the distance 2a gets smaller and smaller, keeping the product |p|=q×2a=constant, we get what is called an ideal dipole or point dipole. Thus, an ideal dipole is the smallest dipole having almost no size.

Physical Significance of electric dipoles...
The study of electric dipoles is important for electrical phenomena in matter. Matter, as we know, consists of atoms or molecules which are electrically neutral. In a molecule, there are positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons. If the centre of mass of positive charges coincides with the centre of mass of negative charges, the molecule behaves as a non-polar molecule. On the contrary, if the centre of mass of positive charges does not coincide with the centre of mass of negative charges, the molecule behaves as a polar molecule and it possesses some intrinsic or permanent dipole moment. In the absence of an external electric field, the dipole moments of different molecules in a piece of matter are randomly oriented, so that net dipole moment of the piece is zero. When an external electric field is applied, the polar molecules tend to align themselves along the field and some net dipole moment developes. The piece of matter is said to have been polarised.

When non-polar molecules are subjected to the action of an external electric field, the centres of mass of positive and negative charges in the molecule get displaced in opposite directions. Thus, the external field induces some dipole moment in the molecule in the direction of the field. The induced dipole moments of different molecules in the sample add up vectorially to produce some net total dipole moment.

Dipole Field: The Dipole field is the electric field produced by an electric dipole. It is the space around the dipole in which the electric effect of the dipole can be experienced. The electric field of the pair of charge (-q and +q) at any point in space can be found from Coulomb's law and the superposition principal. To calculate dipole field intensity at any point, we imagine a unit positive charge held at that point. We calculate force on this charge due to each charge of the dipole and take vector sum of the two forces. This gives us dipole field intensity at that point. We shall show that though the total charge of electric dipole is zero, the field of the electric dipole is not zero. This is because the charge q and -q are separated by some distance. The electric fields due to these charges, when added, do not cancel out. However, at distances much larger than the separation of two charges, i.e., r>>2a, the fields due to q and -q largely cancel out. Therefore, at large distances from the dipole, the dipole field falls off more rapidly than like E~1/r² for a point charge.

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What is Origin Of Electric Charge In Electrostatics?? Explained

Hello Everyone, Am Manjeet Singh And Today we will Discuss About ORIGIN OF ELECTRIC CHARGE IN ELECTROSTATICS So Let's Start...

It is known that all matter is made up of atoms and molecules, the basic unit being an atom. We also know that every atom consists of a central core called the atomic nucleus, around which negatively charged electrons revolve in circular orbits. Every atom is electrically neutral, containing as many electrons as the number of protons in the nucleus. Thus, even though normally, the materials are electrically neutral, they do contain charges, but their charges are exactly balanced.

The vast amount of charge in an object is usually hidden as the object contains equal amounts of positive charge and negative charge. With such an equality or balance of charge, the object is said to be electrically neutral, i.e., it contains no net charge.

If the positive and negative charges are not in balance, then there is a net charge. Thus, an object is charged if it has a charge imbalance or some net charge. Hence, to electrify or charge a neutral body, we need to add or remove one kind of charge. When we say that a body is charged, we always refer to excess charge or deficit charge.

In solids, some of the electrons are less tightly bound in the atom. These are the charges, which are transferred from one body to the other.

When we rub two insulating substances against each other, we provide energy to overcome friction between them. This energy is used in removing elections from one substance and transferring them to the other. The transfer takes place from the material in which electrons are held less tightly to the material in which electrons are held more tightly, i.e., electrons are transferred from the material whose work function is lower to the material whose work function is higher. Consequently, the material which loses electrons acquires a positive charge and material which gains electrons acquires an equal negative charge. For example, when we rub a glass rod with silk, electrons are transferred from glass rod to silk. The glass rod becomes positively charged and silk acquires an equal negative charge. Thus, charging by rubbing is due to actual transfer of electrons.

The cause of charging is actual transfer of electrons from one material to the other. The insulating material with lower work function loses electrons and becomes positively charged and vice-versa.

Further, as an electron has a mass, howsoever small it may be, therefore there does occur some change in mass on charging. A positively charged body has lost some electrons and hence its mass reduces slightly. On the other hand , a negatively charged body has gained some electrons and hence its mass increases slightly.

Note that in rubbing, the no. of electrons that are transferred, is a very small fraction of the total no. of electrons in the material body. Hence, the charge acquired by friction is a very small fraction of the total positive and negative charge content of the body.

Further, as only the less tightly bound electrons in a material body can be transferred from it to another by rubbing, only under suitable conditions, we have to stick to certain pairs of materials to observe charging on rubbing the bodies.

In the Table, we have listed of objects which get charged on rubbing against each other. They have been divided into two classes, one acquiring positive charge and the other acquiring negative charge on rubbing.

Table: Objects Acquiring Two Kinds Of Charges On Rubbing

Positive Charge	Negative Charge
Glass Rod	Silk Cloth
Fur Or Woolen Cloth	Ebonite, Amber, etc.
Woolen Coat	Plastic Seat
Woolen Carpet	Rubber Shoes
Nylon or Acetate	Cloth
Dry Hair	Comb

Obviously, any two charged objects, in the same column repel each other and any two charged objects from different columns attract each other.

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What is Conductors, Insulators and Dielectrics??

Hello Everyone, My name is Manjeet Singh. Today we will Discuss about Conductors, Insulators and Dielectrics. So let's Start...

CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND DIELECTRICS

Most of the substance in nature are divided into two categories, namely, conductors and insulators.
A substance which can be used to carry or conduct electric charge from one place to the other is called a conductor. Silver is one of the best conductors. Other examples of conductors are copper, iron, aluminium, mercury, coal etc. Earth is a good conductor. Human body is also a good conductor of electricity. The liquid Conductors include, salt solutions, acids, alkalis etc.

In a metallic conductor, there are a large no. of free electrons which act as carries of charge. Infact, in a metal, the outer (valence) electrons part away from their atoms and are free to roam about in the body of the metal, but they cannot leave the metal under normal circumstance. The free electrons from a kind of electron gas, they collide with one another ; and also with the ions ; and move randomly in different directions. In an External electric field, the free elections drift against the direction of the field. The residual atoms made up of nuclei and the bound electrons remain held in their fixed positions. They constitute the bound charges in the conductor as they cannot move. In Electrolytic conductors, the charge carries are both, the positive and negative ions.

The insulators are the materials which cannot conduct electricity, i.e., they are poor conductors of electricity. Common examples of insulators are glass, rubber, plastic, ebonite, mica, wax, paper, wood etc. They are called insulators, because they prevent charge from going to places where it is not desired. Such substances possess a negligibly small number of free electrons.

Infact, in an insulator, each electron is attached or bound to a particular atom and is not free to move in the body of the insulator. As each electron stays near its 'parent' nucleus or within its atom or molecule, and cannot move far away from it, therefore, an insulator does not possess freely movable charges. Hence it fails to conduct electricity.

RETAIN IN MEMORY 
Insulators are also called Dielectrics. Obviously, dielectrics cannot conduct electricity. However, when an external electric field is applied, induced charges appear on the surface of the dielectric. Hence we may define dielectrics as the insulating materials which transmit electric effects without conducting.

When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it gets distributed readily over the entire surface of the conductor. In contrast, if some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at the same place.

A nylon or plastic comb gets electrified on combing dry hair or on rubbing. But a metallic rod does not get electrified on rubbing. This is because charges on metal leak through our body to the ground as both are good conductors of electricity.

When a charged body is brought in contact with the earth, all the excess charge on the body disappears by causing a momentary current to pass to the ground through our body. This process of sharing charges with the earth is called grounding or earthing. Earthing near the mains supply of a building is done by burying deep into earth, a thick metal plate. The electric wiring in our houses has three wires ; live, neutral and earth. The first two carry electric current from the power station and the third (earth) is connected to the buried metal plate. Metallic bodies of appliances like T.V., Frig., electric iron etc. are connected to earth wire. If a live wire were to touch the metallic body, charge flows to earth without damaging the appliance and without causing injury to us.

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Amazing Facts About Youtube in Hindi

Namaskar dosto मेरा नाम Manjeet है और आज मैं आपको YouTube से जुड़े कुछ रोचक तथ्यों के  बारे में बताउगा। उम्मीद है की आपको ये पसन्द आएगा। अगर आपको ये पसन्द आए तो एसे like, Share Or Comment करें।

Youtube दुनियां की सबसे बडी Video Library है यहॉ आप किसी भी प्रकार के Video देख और अपलोड कर स‍कते हैंं, लेकिन इसके बारे में कुछ बाते ऐसी भी हैं, जिन्‍हें शायद कम ही लोग जानते हैं - आईये जानते हैं Amazimg YouTube facts in Hindi...

1. Youtube पर अपलोड किया गया सबसे पहला वीडियो Me at the zoo है जिसे 23 अप्रैल 2005 को रात 8: 27 पर अपलोड किया गया था।
2. यह वीडियो तब अपलोड किया गया जब Youtube के संंस्‍थापक जावेद करीम एक चिडियाघर देखने गये थेे।
3. Youtube ने मोबाइल केे लिए 15 जून 2007 को साइट लाॅॅच की थी।
4. दुुनियां की सबसे बडी कंंपनी गूगल ने 14 नबंवर 2006 को Youtube का अधिग्रहण कर लिया था।
5. Youtube का डोमेन नेम www.youtube.com 14 फरवरी 2005 को Active हो गया था।
6. Youtube अब अपने यूजर्स केे लिए कमाई का जरिया भी बन गया है दुनियां भर में लाखों लाेेग Youtube  चैनल बनाकर गूगल एडसेन्स के माध्‍यम से पैसा भी कमा रहे हैं।
7. क्या आप जानते हैं YouTube गूगल के बाद दूसरा सबसे बड़ा सर्च इंजन है।
8. YouTube मैं एक सेकेंड में एक लाख से भी ज्यादा videos देखे जाते हैं।
9. वीडियो Sharing की दुनिया मेँ सबसे उच्चत्तम चोटी पर विराजमान Youtube पर हर मिनट में 400 घटे का वीडियो डाला जात्ता है।
10. Youtube के तीनो सस्थापक चढ हर्ले, स्टीव चेन और जावेद करीम Paypal के कर्मचारी थे। 
11. उनको Youtube बनाने का आईडिया तब आया जब वे एक पार्टी में थे और अपनी फोटो Gmail के जांरेये शेयर करना चाह रहे थे मगर किसी गडबडी के कारण वीडियो शेयर नहीं हो पा रही थी। 
12. Google ने 1.65 बिलियन डॉलर में Youtube खरीद लिया था। 
13. Youtube पर गगनम स्टाइल वाला वीडियो सबसे ज्यादा देखा गया था। इस वीडियो को 2.5 Billion बार देखा गया। 
14. Youtube पर 75 भाषाओँ के वीडियो डाले जात्ते है और ये 60 से ज्यादा देशों में चलता है। 
15. Google के बाद Youtube ही सबसे बड़ा सर्च इजन है। Bing, Ask और Yahoo को मिला कर जित्तने यूजर नहीँ हे उतने Youtube के अकेले है। 
16. Youtube को पहले डेटिग Website के लिए बनाया जा रहा था मगर बाद मेँ इसके निर्माताओं ने इसे वीडियो शेयरिंग के लिए बना दिया। 
17. एक बार तो यूट्यूब ने लोगो को अप्रैल फूल बनाने के लिए अपनी वेबसाइट को उल्टा कर दिया था।
18. जस्टिन बीबर के बेबी वाले गाने को विशव पर अब तक सबसे ज्यादा लोगों ने नापसद किया है।
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Law Of Conservation Of Charge || Explained...

Conservation Of Charge

Conservation of Charge  is the property by virtue of which total charge of an isolated system always remains constant.

Within an isolated system consisting of many charged bodies, charges may get redistributed due to interactions among the bodies, but the total charge of the system shall remain the same.

For example when we rub two bodies, what one body gains in charge, the other body loses the same charge. Thus, it is not possible to create or destroy net charge carried by any isolated system. However, charge carrying particles may be created or destroyed in a process. For example, a neutron turns into a proton and an electron. The proton and electron thus created have equal and opposite charges. The totat charge is zero before and after the creation. Thus, charges can be created or destroyed in equal and unlike pairs only.

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CHRONOLOGY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE...

CHRONOLOGY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. Dalton(1808) : Discovery of atom

2. Julius Plucker (1859) : First discoverer of cathode rays

3. Goldstein(1886) : Discovered anode rays and proton

4. Sir.J.J.Thomson(1897) : Discovered electron and determined charge/mass(e/m)                                                                 ratio for electron

5. Rutherford(1891) : Discovered nucleus and proposed atomic model

6. MaxPlanck(1901) : Proposed quantum theory of radiation

7. RobertMillikan(1909) : Determined charge of an electron

8. H.G.J.Mosely(1913) : Discovered atomic number

9. Niels Bohr(1913) : Proposed a new model of atom

10. Clark Maxwell(1921) : Electromagnetic wave theory

11. de-Broglie(1923) : Established wave nature of particles

12. Pauli(1927) : Discovery of neutrino

13. Werner Heisenberg(1927) : Uncertainty Principle

14. James Chadwick(1932) : Discovery of neutron

15. Anderson(1932) : Discovery of positron

16. Fermi(1934) : Discovered antineutrino

17. Hideki Yukawa(1935) : Discovered mesons

18. Segre(1955) : Discovered antiproton

19. Cork and Association(1956) : Discovered antineutron

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Difference between a particle and a wave...

Difference between a particle and a wave
The concept of a particle and a wave can be understood by the different
points of distinction between them.

PARTICLE

1. A particle occupies a well-defined position in space i.e a particle is localized in space e.g. a grain of sand, a cricket ball etc.
2. When a particular space is occupied by one particle, the same space cannot be occupied simultaneously by any other particle. In other words, particles do not interfere.
3. When a number of particles are present in a given region of space, their total value is equal to their sum i.e it is neither less nor more.

WAVE

1. A wave is spread out in space e.g. on throwing a stone in a pond of water, the waves start moving out in the form of concentric circles. Similarly, the sound of the speaker reaches everybody in the audience. Thus a wave is delocalized in space.
2. Two or more waves can coexist in the same region of space and hence interfere.
3. When a number of waves are present in a given region of space, due to interference, the resultant wave can be larger or smaller than the individual waves i.e. interference may be constructive or destructive.

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Dual Property Of An Electron Louis de Broglie Postulates, Chemistry Study Material, Explained...

DUAL PROPERTY OF AN ELECTRON

In case of light, some phenomena like interference, diffraction etc., can be
explained if light is supposed to have wave character. However certain other
phenomena such as black body radiation and photo electric effect can be explained
only if it is believed to be a stream of photons i.e., has particle character. Thus
light is said to have a dual character. Such studies on light were made by Einstein
in 1905.

Louis de Broglie, a French Physicist, in 1924, advanced the idea that like
photons, all material particles such as electron, proton, atom, molecule, a piece
of chalk, a piece of stone or iron ball possessed both wave character as well as
particle character. The wave associated with a particle is called a matter wave.

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Coulomb’s law l Explanation Statement Formulas Principle...

Coulomb’s law

The force between two charged bodies was studied by Coulomb in 1785.
Coulomb’s law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The direction of forces is along the line joining the two point charges.
Let q1 and q2 be two point charges placed in air or vacuum at a distance "d" apart Then, according to Coulomb’s law,

Where,

1. ‘F’ is the repulsion or attraction force between two charged bodies.
2. ‘Q₁’ and ‘Q₂’ are the electrical charged of the bodies.
3. ‘d’ is distance between the two charged particles.
4. ‘k’ is a constant that depends on the medium in which charged bodies are presented. In S.I. system, as well as M.K.S.A. system k=1/4πε. Hence, the above equation becomes.

The value of ε₀ = 8.854 × 10^-12 C²/Nm².
Hence, Coulomb’s law can be written for medium as,

  
Then, in air or vacuum εr = 1. Hence, Coulomb’s law can be written for air medium as,

 

Limitation of Coulomb’s Law

1. Coulomb’s law is valid, if the average number of solvent molecules between the two interesting charge particles should be large.
2. Coulomb’s law is valid, if the point charges are at rest.
3. It is difficult to apply the Coulomb’s law when the charges are in arbitrary shape. Hence, we cannot determine the value of distance ‘d’ between the charges when they are in arbitrary shape.

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